Audience Analysis and Reception Essay Example for Free

Audience Analysis and Reception Essay Question: You are preparing to write a formal report to be presented to management at your workplace. What are some potential needs for this audience you should be aware of when writing the report? What are the risks of not considering the audience’s needs? As explained in week five (The University of Phoenix, 2014). Writing a Proper Report Writing a formal report to management can be difficult as well as time-consuming. You must know who your audience is and what important topics your management team wants to hear. It is very easy to get off track and present data that is not relevant to the audience that you are directing the report to. You must know your audience. There are several things the author writing the report needs to know, in order to ensure that the management team will understand. The first thing that should be considered is, knowing who your audience is. It is important to know who the managers reading this report are. This makes a difference because you want to capture an audience by the job they have. If the report is a descriptive report about product design, you will not want to write a report about sales revenue. The report must fit the audience. Another important factor the writer should know is, knowing the audiences special interests or prejudices they may have about the information you are going to present. It is important to write the report around the facts and to not try to put in too much feeling. Facts are the only things that should be considered. Let the audience think for themselves and make their minds up based on the data that is being presented. Be prepared and have charts or other supporting documentation ready and available, so that the report can be backed up to support the report. Always pay attention to grammar and watch for any syntax errors in your writing. It is crucial that the audience sees that the report is  credible, properly written and that it flows well so that the audience can understand the report. Formal reports are more detailed and have a lot more detail than a non-formal report. Paragraphing the formal report will be easy for the audience to read. There are a lot of risks involved if these guidelines are not met. The audience has particular needs that they will be looking for, and making certain that these measures are there will lead to success. In conclusion, it is crucial that writers understand who the audience is. A formal report should always have the information in it that fits the audience. You might lose your audience, and the report may be seen as non-credible if the facts are not presented the way they should be. References The University of Phoenix. (2014). Week Five: Audience Analysis and Reception. Retrieved from The University of Phoenix, XBCOM/275 website. Educational Psychologist. (2010). Writing for whom? Cognition, motivation, and a writers audience.. Retrieved from Educational Psychologist, XB/COM 275Communication Process Model website.

The Good Soldier Essay Example for Free

The Good Soldier Essay Impressionism in Literature arrived through art/paintings. In art you reveal the maximum through minimum of strokes. Similarly literary greatness lies in brevity. For example, read this sentence: â€Å"You may cross the moon, beat the stars; but probe you must the mystery of my eve’s smile! † So much has been said to belittle the achievements of the science. It is not to condemn the science, but to make one aware about its limitations and the supremacy of nature. The themes are selectively and beautifully used and deep meaning is conveyed through appropriate expressions. Let us put it this way—impressionism is painting not with the strokes of the brush but with the flow of the pen. You take minimum of words from the vocabulary and give the maximum. This style of writing is for characters, actions and scenes depicted from an objective point of view of reality. It is the test for the skill of the writer. The impressionistic style of writer takes the minimum from the dictionary (vocabulary) and gives the maximum. Experience of the writer in interpreting the various types of situations, complex, vague, transitory, permanent and subjective impressions counts much. He feels from within and the writes about them. For example, a scene can be interpreted through color or short, crisp, to the point sentences. Rapidly changing scenes, quick developments, varying scenes appropriate to the occasion, form part of impressionism. The most unexpected yet true to the subject matter, in relation to time and situation –such is the nature of impressionism. One can not read the works of such authors in a hurry. One needs to carefully examine and enjoy it sentence by sentence, sometimes word by word. Mostly, the first reading will not suffice; a second reading of such books is not an exception, but the rule. The Good Soldier†¦. The narrator in the book, John Dowell is no ordinary man. He has the spontaneous as well as cultivated ability to establish instant rapport with the characters and with the readers. He can neither be hated nor loved by the readers, and he may get as many jeers and cheers depending upon the situation. He knows how to waste, gain and the value time. He arrives and departs and ‘works’ in the book according to a time schedule known to him only. He is not a reader-puller character, but he knows how to win the confidence of the pulled reader. He is generally the know-all, knows the strengths and weaknesses of each character. He is like the stage manager in the drama, produce-director and the script writer all molded into one. He verbally sets the scenes and the time of action with matchless oratorical skill. He introduces in style, the characters and situations and sometimes indicates the morals and the convictions for which they stand and their part in the progress of the story. Once the character is introduced, he provides continuity which holds together short scenes, dialogues, and sudden and abrupt shift in the locale. With a few verbal strokes he completes his job and paves way for the interaction of the actual characters of the story. This is the type of impressionism seen in this book of Maddox, expressed through various characters. The book was first published in 1915. The century-old developments need to be noted. Lot many changes can be seen in the impressionism of the era to which the book belongs, and the impressionism adopted and followed by such writers today. The century old soldier is not the soldier of the day, as for his mental make-up and social disposition. The story has the beginning that makes you curious about what is in store for the reader as the story progresses. The beginning is dramatic. â€Å"This is the saddest story I have ever read. † The plot of the story is weaved around two couples: Edward Ashburnham and his able wife Leonora and the Americans John and Florence Dowell. The two pairs have a ‘wonderful’ level of friendship; they have spent several summers together, before World War I in Germany. Their apparently happy marriages are not that happy. Dents and fissures are seen in their relationships. So, this is the story of age-old marital conflict between the two-Him and Her! John thinks that he is too smart and polished for the talkative Florence, the one without elegance. Edward is a compulsive lady-killer-thanks to his dashing personality and his extreme sentimentalism. He compares Leonora’s charm with the one or more than one he is interested in, and they always score over Leonora. John gets the reporting of the love escapades through Leonora, after the death of the lovers. John feels extremely sorry for his lack of knowledge about human relationships and his carelessness. He turns somewhat cynical as for his lethargy in such a serious and sensitive matter. He is amazed about his carelessness. At this turn of events of the story, the narrator Dowell excels again. He gets a lovely opportunity to talk on the private lives of others. There is no guarantee that whatever he tells is truth and correct. He succeeds in kindling the curiosity of the reader. If one does the quick stock-taking of the story of this book, it is difficult to say whether it is a comedy, tragedy, the comedy of a tragedy or tragedy of a comedy or it is just satire. He condemns and eulogizes the same character, without giving any valid reasons. The private lives of the characters are divulged in regular intervals, but that is done without any offence, any grudge, without the motive of retribution and in a matter of fact of style. .Impressionism is not about creating stereo-type characters, but special, unpredictable ones. It is no ordinary mind-play. Catch and analyze the emotions threadbare. This art is difficult. Maddox has succeeded in creating a painted picture on the curtain of the minds of the reader, without actually painting, without using colors, but with the exquisite strokes of appropriate words and phrases. Notwithstanding the episodes related to sex and adultery, The Good Soldier is a book that preaches morals. The important theme of the book is the difference between reality and appearance. The difference between the actual world and the imaginary, good world! A reference was made earlier that we need to keep an important aspect in mind that it is an antic story—one hundred years old. Lots of differences exist between the values then and now. The society then did not speak about betrayal, adultery and moral confusion with ease. Now these are kindergarten stuffs. The writer of impressionism has got to be a student of psychology with capacity to peep into the minds of the characters. He doesn’t do the description of the reality, but captures the impressions thus derived. The writer is witness to the actions; he does not participate in actions or meditate between the characters. He just tries to get the impressions derived from them, penetrating their minds and piercing the hearts. Such writing is difficult to comprehend and digest. Conclusion: Considering all the above aspects The Good Soldier by Maddox, could be described as ‘impressionable’ and the significance of the novel is that its contents provide both sense of universal and spiritual. Religion and spirituality were the indivisible parts of the life of people in the nineteenth century. The novel fits into the observations of E. M Forster. He â€Å"dismisses the method of examining the novel as a historical development, in preference to an image of all novelists throughout history writing simultaneously, side by side. He first establishes that, if nothing else, a novel is a story that takes place over a period of time. He stresses the importance of character, maintaining that both ‘‘flat’’ and ‘‘round’’ characters may be included in the successful novel. He regards the necessity of plot, which creates the effect of suspense, as a problem by which character is frequently sacrificed in the service of providing an ending to the novel. Fantasy and prophecy, which provide a sense of the ‘‘universal,’’ or spiritual, Forster regards as central aspects of the great novel. † (Aspects†¦. ) It appears this observation by Fosters, is especially addressed to â€Å"The Good Soldier. † References Cited: Article: Aspects of the Summary and Study Guide- Novel www. enotes. com/aspects-novel/ 16k Cached – Retrieved on December 6, 2007.

Developed Nations and Underdeveloped Nations Economic Growth

Developed Nations and Underdeveloped Nations Economic Growth Forecasting the gap of Economical Growth between the Developed Nations and Underdeveloped Nations (Application of Winter Forecasting). Muhammad Bilal Literature Review: In 1981 street of Beijing, China was filled with pedestrians, bicycles, a few cars and small buildings. Thirty years later the same street having traffic-jam of cars and skyscrapers. How this city transformed into a mega-city having underground train stations, state of the art technology and high standards of living. This is the effect of sustain and rapid economic development. What is economic development? and how we can obtain these astonishing results out of it. During the speech of 1949, US President Harry Truman, identified the main concern for the west is development of underdeveloped region. The term Economic Development is generally used in many other synonymous terms such as economic growth, economic welfare, secular change and economic progress. Economic development, as it is now generally understood, includes the development of agriculture, industry, trade, transport, means of irrigation, power resources, etc. Economic development has been defined in different ways and as such it is difficult to locate any single definition which may be regarded entirely satisfactory. Economic development applies in the context of peoples sense of morals (Normative Concept). Michael Todaro defines economic development as an raise in living standards, self-esteem and freedom from unjust exercise of authority as well as a greater options. Distinction was drawn between standards of living (subjective or value based concept of economic development) and levels of living (objective and fact based concept) in article International Definition and Measurement of Standards and Levels of Living (UN, 1954). Positive economics or levels of living can be tested. So we can say that economic development is the quantitative and qualitative changes in the economy. Economic development is sum of actions of policy makers and communities that encourage the standard of living and economic health. Such actions can involve multiple dimensions including development of human capital, critical infrastructure, regional competitiveness, environmental sustainability, social inclusion, health, safety, literacy, and other initiatives. Economic development and economic growth are different concept. Whereas economic development concern with policy intervention which originated in aftermath of war the reconstruction started by the US. The economic development of a nation or humanity is generally linked with growing incomes and associated increases in consumption, investment, and savings. These points are clearly open to debate. Dictionary of Economics’ article on Development Economics, Bell (1989) utilized the pioneer and latecomer as an organizing framework given that independent countries start out as poor in a world where at that point rich nation. Economic development was visually perceived as a process in which latecomer get closer to pioneers. Per capita income can be use as proxy for measurement of development as various social indicators for instance educational attainment, health, etc. As discussed above, it is sensible to come to the point that international organizations approach to ‘development construct’ are very differently. One justification for this variety of concept is that economic theory does not give any direction to that matter. Although another explanation is that every organization has their own specific mandate therefore may approach this matter with different mindset and perception. Economic development refers to an upward trend in real national output over a long period. Although the upward trend means that each successive cyclical peak and trough is generally at a higher level of real national output than the preceding peak and trough respectively. There is a positive relationship between the real national income and economic development if all other things remain the same. Higher real national income of a country is considered to be an indication of higher economic development and vice versa. In Short it is implies that the real national income is a good tool for measuring economic development of a country. However it could be an inadequate tool for measuring economic development, but it can be used for global development comparisons among nations. Purchasing power of national income should be taken into account while quantifying economic development. There is another method (HDI) for measuring development which takes into account the literacy rates and life expectancy which affects output and could result in Economic Growth. It also entails raise in the per capita income. Economic development leads to the economic growth which is a necessary condition but not sufficient and we can say Economic growth follows many different ways, and not all of them are sustainable. Certainly, there are numerous researchers who argue that globe has limited resources so any form of economic growth is sooner or later unsustainable. Economic Growth does not consider the reduction in natural resources which might lead to greenhouse gasses, overcrowding and diseases. Development however is concerned with sustainability which means meet the requirements of the present with no compromise on future. From now on we take a look at what exactly Economic Growth is and will go through some measures of it. Economic growth is the increase in the capacity or increase in the market worth of the goods and services produced by a country over period. Economic growth indicator like GDP is used to compare economy of one period of time to another or one country to other. It is traditionally calculated in nominal term (which means inflation adjusted GDP), the ratio of GDP to population; it is also called per capita income. -Economic growth is a process in which country achieve high real national income in long period of time. There are a few approaches to gauge Economic growth. The fact should be consider while using Economic Growth as proxy for economic development that it does not take into consideration the informal economy also known as the black economy. Development improves the standards of living and proper employment with appropriate shelter. Consequently, as well known economist Amartya Sen points out that Economic Growth is a piece of the big puzzle the economic development. During the period of high inflation the Growth rate may be much higher. The fact should be considered that growth rate (in short term) also rise and fall with business cycles. Economic boom accompanied the rising inflation which is followed by recession. It has been observed by statisticians that Developed countries have higher GDP per capita (Easterly 2002). It is argue that GDP per capita may increase due to the increment in incomes of richer groups in the society so we can say that per capita GDP growth may not reduce the poverty or societal development. It is observed by Dependency theorists that poor nations sometimes experience economic growth with modest or no economic development initiatives. There are many indicator of economic growth like Increase in the capital, progress in technology, and enchantment in the quality and literacy Rate are considered to be the main factors of economic growth. Recently the idea of sustainable growth has brought in additional factors. Underdeveloped nations which are not using their resources fully and having lower livelihood, low Human Development Index (HDI) as compared to other countries. A GDP that is growing at a high rate is thought to be greatest sign that an economy is developing and thriving. This is the reason nations like China and Brazil were considered so important in 2010s. It wasnt on account of they had gotten to be major economic power it was on the argument that they were headed to wind up major financial powers because of their high GDP development rates. So nations regularly stay informed regarding how rapid different nations are developing to anticipate (describe a possible future event) what the worldwide economy will look like later on. Influential economies need to know who their new enemies will be. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a sort of monetary apparatus that is used by governments and economists as a method for measuring economic growth in an expressed period. For the most part, the estimation of GDP is used because of its significance in the figuring of how well the economy is performing. All things considered, the relationship in the betw een the GDP and economic growth is the way that GDP serves as a method for study how an economy is acting. GDP tries to gauge the aggregate utilization of resource inside the economy. Although, GDP is a part measure of the numerous features of our modern economy. The most well-known refrain went for GDP is that it lets us know minimal about our general or individual monetary welfare. Development concerns not only mans material needs but also the improvement of the social condition of his life. Development is, therefore, not only economic growth, but growth plus change in social, cultural and institutional as well as economic. This definition encompasses economic and non-economic aspects of development the central point of this definition is that quantitative and qualitative changes in development variables are considered essential ingredients of economic development. Thus, we can conclude that economic development is a process rather than the result of it which results in a rise in real national income, and the net national product must have a sustained increase i.e., it must be over a long period of time. How do we construct a classification system based on countries development attainment? The World Bank and the IMF approach this issue differently. Do high levels of GDP necessarily correspond with high levels of development? Necessarily not because countries like India and China having way higher levels of GDP than countries like Belgium and New Zealand, but hardly any would suggest that latter are economically less developed than the former. Main reason behind that may be politically acceptable minimum living standards differ greatly from country to country it implies poverty lines are country specific, which hinder comparison of countries with respect to their economic development. There is no criterion (either grounded in theory or based on an objective benchmark) that is generally accepted for classifying countries according to their level of development because development is not a concept that can provide a basis upon which countries can be classified. There are large differences in the standard of living enjoyed by citizens of different countries. For example, in 2009 a citizen in Burkina Faso earned on average US$510 as compared to US$37,870 for a Japanese citizen, and while in Burkina Faso 29 percent of the adult population was literate and a new-born baby could expect to live 53 years, virtually all adults in Japan were literate and a Japanese new-born baby could expect to live 83 years. Another possible justification for the absence of a generally accepted classification system is the inherent normative nature of any such system. In 1960s developing and developed words are became the more common way to characterize countries, especially in the context of policy discussions on transferring real resources from richer (developed) to poorer (developing) countries (Pearson et al, 1969). This could suggest that a developing/developed country dichotomy is too restrictive and that a classification system with more than two categories could better capture the diversity in development outcomes across countries. It is more complicated develop a classification system. There are two problems that need to be addressed. One, it is not clear what is the correct number of categories. Two countries measured development attainment are most likely all different and a procedure is needed to tweak the development attainments that is to say construct a synthetic distribution to ensure that countries within each category have the same. A developed economy is the characterized by increase in capital resources, improvement in efficiency of labor, better organization of production in all spheres, development of means of transport and communication, growth of banks and other financial institutions, urbanization and a rise in the level of living, improvement in the standards of education and expectation of life, greater leisure and more recreation facilities and the widening of the mental horizon of the people. 1) Significance of Industrial Sector. 2) High Rate of Capital Formation. 3) Use of High Production Techniques and Skills. A country that is less  developed  economically  than most others, with little  industry  and little  money  spent  on  education,  healthcare. There is huge debate on this topic that which countries fit these two categories of developed and underdeveloped, although GDP is general reference points to compare nations. This paper use time series method to forecast the upcoming condition of economy. It comprises the use of statistical methods and using factor GDP. We will use GDP to forecast the economical growth gap between the developed nations and underdeveloped nations. It is an important tool for countries as they devise future planning and strategies. I will use Holt winter to forecast the gap of economic growth. The Holt-Winters method has found to be the best and simple method to forecast time series. References: Bradford, C. (2010). Economic Growth and Equity Investing. Financial Analysts Journal, 66, 54-64. Reddaway, W. (1963). The Economics of Under-Developed Countries. The Economic Journal, 73, 1-12. William, F. (1964). Differential rates of growth, developed and underdeveloped nations, and their implications. Journal of farm economics, 46, 1043-1050. Minh, Q. (2009). Poverty, income distribution, and Agriculture in developing Countries. Journal of economic,36, 168-183. Harold, B. (1969). Growth in developed nations. The review of economics and statistics, 51, 143-148. Williams, T. (1987). Adaptive Holt-Winters Forecasting. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 38, 553-560.

My Adventure with Drugs :: Personal Narrative Writing

My Adventure with Drugs My brother David decided one afternoon that he was going to take me on an adventure. He came to this decision after smoking pot and watching the Disney version of Alice in Wonderland. I, being a child of nine, thought it sounded fun. My parents weren't home and my brother was supposed to be watching me. Mom and Dad usually didn't like me going too far from the house when they weren't there. That's why I questioned was how long it would take. â€Å"We'll be back before they get home,† he told me. That sounded good to me. I said I'd go with him. We started off by walking over the hills and crossing the stream in the cow pasture that's across the road from my house. I showed him the group of trees near the far end of the field that was over grown and full of vines to swing on and logs to hide behind. I told him I called it Sherwood Forrest. It seemed like great news to him because he acted very excited, but to my disappointment we did not stop there. It seems that my brother had a destination in mind. We left the pasture and crossed through the corner of the forested ridges that begin around my house. We followed a path that my neighbor used to ride her horse on. We walked through freshly turned fields and grassy ones that had no productive purpose. Finally after all of the open land we ran into an obstacle. The obstacle is called route 283. My brother and I hopped the fence that is meant to keep people and animals away from the highway. It wasn't until my brother climbed the embankment and had a leg over the metal barrier set up to keep cars from crashing into the ditch I stood in that I had enough courage to ask him a question.

to thine own self be true: The Wise Polonius of Hamlet :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

The Wise Polonius of Hamlet      Ã‚  Ã‚   In Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet there is one character, besides the protagonist, who is very quotable because of the wisdom of his comments. This is the father of Laertes and Ophelia, namely Polonius. He is the subject of this essay. In â€Å"Shakespeare’s Nomenclature† Harry Levin discusses the name â€Å"Polonius’ and other names from the play: The Latinism Polonius reminds us of the Polish question, moot throughout Hamlet, where the onomastics are polyglot. If Marcellus and Claudius are Latin, Bernardo and Horatio are Italian, and Fortinbras signifies â€Å"strong arm† not in Norwegian but French (fort-en-bras). On the other hand, the son of Polonius has a Greek godfather in Laertes, the father of Odysseus. The Scandinavian names, at least the Germanic Gertrude, stand out because they are in the minority. (79) What’s in a name like Polonius? Here is a literary critic who respects his advice: Rebecca West in â€Å"A Court and World Infected by the Disease of Corruption† talks about Polonius: Polonius is interesting because he was a cunning old intriguer who, like an iceberg, only showed one-eighth of himself above the surface. The innocuous sort of worldly wisdom that rolled off his tongue in butter balls was a very small part of what he knew. It has been insufficiently noted that Shakespeare would never have held up the action in order that Polonius should give his son advice as to how to conduct himself abroad, unless the scene helped him to develop his theme. But â€Å"This above all – to thine own self be true; And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man† (I.3.78), has considerable . . . value when it is spoken by an old gentleman who is presently going to instruct a servant to spy on his son, and to profess great anxiety about his daughter’s morals, when plainly he needed to send her away into the country if he really wanted her to retain any [. . .].(108) Polonius’ entry into the play occurs at the social get-together of the royal court. Claudius has already been crowned; Queen Gertrude is there; Hamlet is present in the black clothes of mourning. When Laertes approaches Claudius to give his farewell before returning to school, the king asks Polonius: â€Å"Have you your father's leave? What says Polonius?† And the father dutifully answers:

Helping the Little Children Essay -- Personal Narrative Essays

Helping the Little Children    I feel the pounding footsteps under my feet and the intense air rush past me as I run, squirming to keep my posture. I struggle to stay glued to the beast's side. If I miss one crucial step, it may mean tragedy for this innocent little disabled boy. I stay close to Dakota's ribs as we move into the turn. Relieved, I gasp for the warm mountain air as we slow to a walk. With my arms still extended above my head, I smile at the partially toothless grin.    As I drive my topless jeep, rounding bend after bend, I find myself staring at the lightly snow-capped mountains in the distance. I run my hands through my windblown hair and notice nature's brilliant autumn colored aspen patterns whiz past me.    Just over the ridge, I casually pull into Chris Turpin's leaf covered driveway. To my left, stands a squatty farm house that has dirty tan siding with dark brown trim, topped with a new forest green metal roof. The few windows the house displays are abnormally small and are always dark. The simple wood siding, though patched with dust and cob webs, has a neat, serene air to it. A branch-covered lawn, which looks as though it has not been mowed in weeks, makes a narrow ring around the house. To my right, stands a pole barn with no solid sides, rising far above the many tarnished orange corrals surrounding it. The barn is just old enough to have collected a nice assortment of ragged bird nests in its rafters, but the wood is not yet discolored. The barn encloses a small rectangular arena, which has one corner rounded off by an old log. In the spare corner is an ancient water faucet and invincible weeds. Extending from the east side of the barn are large corrals... ...e highest mountain when he grows up. Even though he hurts whenever he moves now, he has such an incredible desire to reach this goal and make his dreams come true. I believe he will someday fulfill his dream, and it will be a result of the magic that happens at this very place. It is just a quaint farm house with a rickety barn and a handful of hospitable souls all put together to create something incredible.    However, this place is not just a place for disabled children's dreams to come true, it is a place for my dreams to come true as well. This is a place I feel I am needed and truly inspired to reach my highest goals. It was here I discovered my gift of helping disabled children, and it was here that I learned to slow down for the turns in my life and enjoy the ride. Someday I will create my own TER Program; that is my dream.      

How non English Native Speaker Translate Slang Texting into Regular English

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTIONThe subject of this study is slang and how the use of slang can be transferred from a source text in one language to a target text in another language. I have chosen this subject because slang is something in a conversation or similar communicative situation that most people easily recognize as soon as it is uttered, but explaining and defining what slang is and how it functions is an entirely different matter.Consequently, it is interesting to research the use of slang in order to determine if there are any difficulties in transferring slang from one language to another. Slang seems to have suffered social stigma among linguists and lexicographers because it has frequently been associated with overtly impertinent behavior (Adams 2009: 32). However, as it turns out, little research has been conducted into the actual use of slang. In fact, finding sources to explain the function of slang is very difficult.Researching terminology that is attributed to being slang , showed me that slang is more than just words to show impertinent behavior and that there are many social aspects embedded in slang, which in this thesis will be referred to as the use of slang. This study seeks to find out what slang is, how it is used, who uses it and why it is used. The embedded social effect and function of using slang will be researched and discussed in order to show why slang deviates from standard language and why it is used.I have chosen to look at how slang works within a given culture (the USA) because in Denmark, due to an excessive exposure to American television, films and music, we are heavily subjected to American- English language media which may give us a greater consciousness of the English language. From a translation studies’ point of view, slang is interesting because of its connotations in its source culture.Slang seems to be connected to the culture in which it is created, so how are slang words and expressions transferred into another language and culture and does the transfer affect the possibility to maintain the use of slang in the translation? In the world of translation studies, research into the translation of slang seems somewhat limited. The reason may be that slang is largely considered a colloquial phenomenon which reduces the genres of communication in which it can appear. More specifically, slang is most likely to be translated in connection with slang style of teenagers, in the form of texting.CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONA. Theory of TranslationThe acknowledgement of translation theory as a scientific discipline is usually attributed to J. S. Holmes. In his statement on the Symposium of Applied Linguistics (Copenhagen, 1972), he insisted on the establishment of translation theory as an independent field of research. The framework of this new scientific discipline was hard to determine because of its complex requirements and because it uses materials and results from many other linguistic disci plines.So, whoever wants to deal with the theory and poetics of translation should pay attention to the special requirements of similar disciplines and should be able to include their work in this new discipline. Because of all this, translation theory was considered an activity of secondary importance that relies on other people's thoughts and knowledge. The result of this was a diminishment of the value of research in this area.However, after years of undeserved treatment, the study of translation theory is gaining the place it should have had from the start. As an object of scientific research, the translation process attracts the attention of many scientific disciplines and methods, especially contrastive analysis. This kind of analysis can be successfully applied in monitoring structures and idioms of one language and comparing them to their semantic counterparts in another language.In this process we can also determine whether one particular phrase exists in only one language, or it is a common expression in several languages. In the final results of this study we can determine most important general and specific language differences. As a systematic scientific approach, with specific methods and goals, contrastive analysis was conceived in the United States in 1930’s, but it gained an important place in language science 40 years later. Of course, general linguistics with its theory and methodology supported this action.It is reasonable to assume that those who deal with translation as a science want linguistics to provide a practical contribution to translation, and to offer an improvement of practical use for those who learn foreign languages. Internal connections between linguistics and translation are quite obvious and convincingly confirmed by the generated models presented by generative grammar. However, although contrastive analysis has left important traces in the study of language, so far it hasn’t shown many important results in s ocial and cultural fields or practical solutions for the benefit of communication.According to contrastive analysis, the written text has a permanent structure, it requires focusing only from the standpoint of etymology and semantics, so it does not allow observation of life situations or events that occur in the language under the influence of the social and cultural environment. If we accept the terms mentioned above according to their original etymological meaning, it is clear that they define translation as the decision to say something to someone somewhere â€Å"over†, where people speak a different language and the message can not be understood without translation, transmission or inversion.To make it simple, translation represents transferring messages from one language to another. Translators often try to highlight the direct connection between translation and language. Professional translators usually insist on translating the semantic components of the text, but som etimes there’s a need for literal translation. Some often criticize the language structures that can be found in under-educated translators’ work. Although professional translators insist on the connection between translation and various fields of modern science, their theories can not offer enough evidence on the true importance of translation.Traditional scientific practice gives the activity of translation a secondary role and leaves it in the shadow of the importance of scientific research. When it comes to the translation process, we can say that a translator transfers information between the two languages. In fact, a translator transfers the contents of the text written in one language – also known as source language – into the expressions in the second language – also called the target language. This type of translation is called inter-language.Given the relationship between source language and target language, there can be  also intra-lan guage and inter-semiotic translation. Inter-language translation is a process in which the linguistic material from one language is transferred using material from some other language. Intra-language translation is the name for replacing one form of language material with another form of that same language. Inter-semiotic translation can be defined as the conversion of characters from the language system structure to another system of signs (for example, converting traffic regulations to traffic symbols).In this case, Translation's status as a mental activity of secondary importance is caused by the thought that in the transfer between two languages, translators are trying to shape other people’s thoughts, not their own. As a form of mental activity, translation represents the transformation of thoughts, feelings or desires, originally designed in one language, into the same kind of thought, feeling or desire in another language.B. Theory of CommunicationThe network is expect ed to process messages regardless of their contents. The perspective of the communication network therefore is different from that of the communicators. Only by operating at a next, that is, receiving interface, can the substance of the message be reconstructed and further processed. This next interface may be a (human) receiver or another differentiation of the network. As the differentiation changes, the message is expected to have another situational meaning (Granovetter 1985).The substance of communication can only be reconstructed if the communication systems are sufficiently complex for packaging the original signal. The original substance of the message, however, remains an assumption at the receiving end and decoding is based on theoretical assumptions. Although this may in practice be taken for granted, all sense of an original communality is recognizable as based on a specific coding, for example, in terms of basic affections. At the level of the social system, the communi cation of information not only transmits, but also translates and potentially transforms the expected information content.The full formalization of the substance of communication in terms of messages expected to contain information was accomplished by Shannon's (1948) mathematical theory of communication. From this perspective, information is content-free and equated with uncertainty; it is formalized in terms of binary digits or bits. When the uncertainty is complete, the system is assumed to be â€Å"dead† in a formal sense. A system can only process information, that is, communicate, as long as the expected information is not complete but contained within a communication. A communication system communicates with other communication systems.The latter provide contexts insofar as they communicate, that is, insofar as these systems are neither completely certain (â€Å"fixed†) nor completely uncertain (â€Å"dead†). Thus, a model of co-variation and remaining va riation in otherwise orthogonal dimensions can be formalized (Leydesdorff 1994). By differentiating the systems suppress the co-variation and tend to become nearly decomposable (Simon 1973). Whereas the covariation between two systems (A and B) is mutually determined, the remaining variation provides a structure over time in the one system (A) that is a latent condition for the coevolving system (B).From the perspective of the latter system (B), the structure (in A) can also be considered as redundancy or failing information. Therefore, structure is latent from this perspective. The covariations provide windows at which the systems share information mutually. The remaining variations are based on the recursive code of the communication over time and remain internal to each of the co-evolving systems. In the case of a dually layered communication medium like human language (see above), the same communication can be nearly decomposable in one dimension while firmly related in another. For example, we may agree despite a deep misunderstanding in terms of the information exchange, while one is also able to disagree about a given meaning when one fully agrees about the underlying exchange. Thus, a two-dimensional communication medium allows for differentiation and integration at the same time. The operation has become complex in itself. With increasing differentiation the system has to improve on its internal operation of integration because of the risk of otherwise falling apart from an excess of differentiation.Keeping this balance under the pressure of increasing uncertainty can be considered as the driving force for developing communicative competences in a communication system. The communicative competences are expected to be differentiated in the case of inter-human communication. Whereas the substance of social communication (i) is packaged, the communicative competencies tend also to become formalized. The social network system, however, remains structurally coupled to human agency in the substantive dimension.As long as one maintains Luhmann's assumption that human agency has to be the substantive carrier of the reflexive translation at the node, the social system cannot be completely virtual. One has to abandon the complete idealization in the historical case since observable reproduction has to be realized as one of the subdynamics of otherwise virtual networks. In this respect, sociology is different from the study of artificial systems. The historical instantiations contain the fingerprints of the social system's reproduction.Institutional dynamics exhibit codifications of communication that have been useful hitherto to the extent that they have been institutionalized. These â€Å"real life† phenomena are part of the social system as are we ourselves, that is, as subdynamics which can be invoked. In other words: human agency is structurally coupled to the social system, but only along one of the two dimensions of inter-huma n communication at each time. The other dimension is the way our communication is processed as a message. Along this dimension, the expectation is that we are only operationally coupled, since operational coupling allows for differentiation.The social system operates in terms of expectations (that is, uncertainties) and expectations concerning expectations (that is, meaningful selections). This differentiation in the communication provides parallel channels in the medium that the network system has available for propelling the communication. Language supports this dual-layeredness in the communication by providing a means of codification of the relation between the message and the information. The interactions among the two layers provide the system with variation that can recursively be selected as meaningful.For example, one is able to play with the meanings and the functions of communications. Furthermoe, one is sometimes able to control some of the selections by improving one's own communicative competences. Although each of us is able to select individually by providing meaning to some information and not to other, the reflections are socially distributed and hence they contain also an update value for the network behind the backs of the participants involved. In each communication, one degree of freedom may be hidden hyperreflexively or it can be made available to the communication, that is, infrareflexively.When the socially distributed reflections can be communicated, they are provided with situational meaning. The latter interaction is expected to interact with the not-yet communicated layer of reflections, and by generating this new variation the system propels itself. On the side of the human agency involved, this configuration provides us with opportunities for building niches within the system or, in Habermas' terminology, with options for improving the quality of life, for example, by fine-tuning communicative competencies to the exigencies of th e communicated culture.C. Theory of Slang LanguageThe definition of slang can be found in literature researching slang. Unlike dictionaries, whose main focus is to provide the general outline of a lexical item, but cannot elaborate on too many aspects due to a restriction on the space available, the specialized literature presented in this paragraph presents more in-depth research on slang and has a different approach to how to define slang.In her book Slang & Sociability in which she researches the use of slang among college students in the USA, English professor Connie Eble presents her own definition of slang: â€Å"Slang is an ever changing set of colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or reinforce social identity or cohesiveness in society at large† (Eble 1996: 11). Eble’s definition differs significantly from the definitions presented in the dictionaries. While she agrees that slang is colloquial, Eble’s definition highlights the socia l aspects of slang which the dictionaries either ignore or do not find relevant to explain.According to Eble, slang thus seems to serve a purpose which is the establishment of social identity for the speaker and the people with whom they are interacting. Michael Adams agrees and says that slang serves to fill the following purposes: to identify members of a group, to change the level of discourse in the direction of informality, and to oppose established authority (Adams 2009: 16). Adams’ and Eble definitions show that slang is not just a set of words/phrases used by particular groups, but that it is something that are used by people to establish groups.The difference between these two notions is that slang can be used by anyone with the aim of wanting to establish group identity and to oppose established authority. Eble mentions Dumas and Lighter who proposes four identifying criteria for slang (Dumas & Lighter 1978 14-16 in Eble 1996: 11-12): 1. Its presence will markedly l ower, at least for the moment, the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing. 2. Its use implies the user’s familiarity either with the referent or with that less statusful or less responsible class of people who have such familiarity and use the term.3. It is a tabooed term in ordinary discourse with persons of higher social status or greater responsibility. 4. It is used in place of the well-known conventional synonym, especially in order (a) to protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional item or (b) to protect the user from the discomfort or annoyance of further elaboration. Dumas & Lighter say that when something fits at least two of the criteria, a linguistically sensitive audience will react to it in a certain way.This way, which cannot be measured, is the ultimate identifying characteristic of true slang. This shows that the use of slang is a negotiation between the speaker and the listener, because the speaker wants to convey something with th e use of slang which the listener must acknowledge. Adams acknowledges this and says that it is not a word itself that makes something slang, but rather the extrinsic feature of its use adapted by speakers to very precise human social and aesthetic needs and aspirations (Adams 2009: 48).Thus, the four criteria show that slang goes far beyond just being a lexical item. Moreover, all four criteria seem to focus on the social implications of using slang and the consciousness of shared knowledge between speaker and other participants. Dumas & Lighter imply that slang is used to change the level of formality from formal and serious speech towards informality, which also was what was suggested in the dictionary definitions and by Adams and Eble The objective of using sets of slang words and expressions is to achieve something on a social level.The speaker uses slang in order to achieve social dynamics with the people to whom he/she is speaking and slang outlines social space, and attitude s towards slang helps identify and construct social groups and identity. (Adams 2009:57). This means that when you use slang, you expose yourself, your ideas and your attitude as to how you want to perceive the people with whom you are interacting, and how you want these people to perceive you, while you rely on the people with whom you are speaking to be able to infer what you mean.From this follows that slang is not a language as such as implied in some of the dictionary  definitions mentioned in the previous paragraph, but rather a set of words and expressions in a given language used to create group dynamics, because slang is used within a given language to establish a difference between standard language and slang. The difference is not so much in the words themselves, but in the intended effect of using the words. The switch from standard language to slang implies informal settings and helps determining group dynamics. In the words of Eble, people use slang â€Å"when they want to be creative, clear 2 A form of e. g. English which does not include evident non-standard usage of the language† (Hamaida 2007: 3).Translating the use of slang – A study of microstrategies in subtitling with a view to researching the transfer of the use of slang from source text to target text with I Love You, Man as empirical example, including a study of the function of slang and acceptable to a select group† (Eble 1998: 19). In addition, slang is ephemeral. Slang changes constantly and it is the constant notion of what to use and what not to use that creates group identity. Eble says that â€Å"sharing and maintaining a constantly changing in-group vocabulary aids group solidarity and serves to include and exclude members† (Eble 1998: 119).The members are those who understand not only the word said by a slang user, but also know what the intention of using the word is. In this way, slang operates like fashion: You always need to keep up with the l atest trends and if you do not, you are not as fashionable as other slang users are, and you must know how to respond to slang and to show whether you are ‘in-crowd’ or ‘out-crowd’ (Ibid: 121). What still needs to be explained is what makes a given word appear slang to listeners.As we saw above, Lighter and Dumas suggested that a slang term is taboo when used around people that do not belong to your group and that slang is a synonym to a conventional word in the standard language used to avoid having to protect the user of the word from discomfort from having to elaborate on the word or to use the real word. This tells us that slang has an effect on both speaker and listener, and that slang is not applicable in all settings. Adams mentions that slang is â€Å"casual, racy, vivid, irreverent, and playful elements [that] rebels against the standard (whether mildy, wildly or in between)† (Adams 2009: 9).The attributes suggested by Adams proposes that sl ang can be mild and casual in its appearance just as it can be racy and irreverent. Essentially, Adams believes that slang is used to rebel against standard language, but that the reasons for doing so does not have to be to show bad behaviour or obvious irreverence. As we saw in the dictionary definitions above, slang seems to be listed as being not polite and offensive, but Adams believes that slang can just as well be playful and a joking way of rebelling against standard language to mark the difference between e.g. parents and children (in-crowd versus out-crowd), but the children do not necessarily have wicked intentions with the use of slang.Rather, slang is used to create a social line between children and parents/adults (Ibid: 32). Of course, context comes into play when we think of slang. Adams mentions that slang is not slang until someone recognises it to be slang (Adams 2009: 62). This means that listeners must be able to recognise the speaker’s intent to break wit h established linguistic convention and to determine that what they are hearing is slang.CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONThe term of using slang texting commonly can be learning trough chat with someone aboard. From the research result, we could see that student A who is often having chat with someone abroad can translate the text source appropriately. While student B is unfamiliar with slang texting, it is because student B rarely having chat with someone abroad. Knowing slang language is good for people who want to be an active English speaker. By mastering slang language, so we can take easily to communicate with the English native speaker.